Jackson’s Knowledge Argument

Dualism is the theory that our world is not entirely physical but is made up of mind and matter, therefore uggesting the mind is not the brain (brain is matter, the mind is a separate entity). Cartesian Dualism states: Each mind is an immaterial substance capable of independent existence. The characteristic property of this substance is thought. The physical world is a material substance, capable of independent existence. The characteristic property of this substance is extension (taking up space). (Lecture 1, DCT). Monism, in contrast to dualism states that the mind and brain are unified, and that there is no division between the two.Those who support monism believe that there is only one reality. Physicalism is a kind of monism as it is the belief that different approaches to the mind-body problem, let us look at the knowledge argument by Frank Jackson, who theorises that physicalism is false. Jackson describes two thought experiments to support his anti-physicalism theory. The fir st centres around Mary, a brilliant scientist who is confined to a black and white room, who learns everything through black and white, including a black and white television.Mary is an expert in the neurophysiology of vision learns all the physical information about what happens to the brain when we see colour. Jackson (1982, p. 30) states: â€Å"She discovers, for example, Just which wave-length combinations from the sky stimulate the retina, and exactly how this produces via the central nervous system the contraction of vocal chords and expulsion of air from the lungs that results in the uttering of the sentence â€Å"The sky is blue†. When Mary leaves the room, and sees the colour red for the first time, Jackson raises the question of whether Mary will learn anything or not.Jackson claims that yes indeed Mary does, because she is having a new visual experience that she has not had before, despite having all the physical information prior to this. Jackson (1982, p. 130) g oes on â€Å"But then it is inescapable that her previous knowledge was incomplete. But she had all the physical information. Ergo there is more to have than that, and Physicalism is false†. Jackson believes that qualia has been left out of this story. qualia relates to our own subjective experiences.When I see a colour, smell a perfume, I am subjected toa conscious experience that is only relevant to me, no one else can experience these sensations the way I do. The following thought experiment in Jackson's paper explains this further. Fred, presented with a bunch of ripe tomatoes, separates them n to two groups. Fred has better colour vision than anyone else, but manages to separate the tomatoes into two groups, redl and red2. Whilst we may categorise all the tomatoes as simply red, Fred sees clearly two different types of red, in the way we would distinguish yellow from green.Suppose we know all about Fred's physiology and discover is a super ability to separate colours on the red spectrum, it does not actually tell us what it is like to see colour from Fred's perspective, or his colour experience. No amount of physical information about Fred can tell us what it is like o see colours in the same way as Fred does. Furthermore, if we were to implant Fred's brain into another beings body, it still would not tell us anything about Fred's conscious experience of seeing red at this present moment in time.Thomas Nagel's paper What is it like to be a bat? reinforces the theory that physicalism leaves something out. If we look at physicalism objectively, for example, look at the facts about Marys physiology that enable to her to see, we can know what happens to the optic nerve and retina when Mary sees colour, or light, but her experience of seeing he colour red is a subjective one. This experience is told from the first person point of view, therefore Nagel suggests that we cannot be objective about other people's experiences.Nagel (1974, p. 426) describes ho w we can we observe the physicality of bats: â€Å"Now we know that most bats (the microchiroptera, to be precise) perceive the external world primarily by sonar, or echolocation, detecting the reflections, from objects within range, of their own rapid, subtly modulated, high frequency shrieks†. There is nothing about a bat's senses that are like ours, and while we can imagine hat it may be like to be another human being, we cannot imagine what it is like to our imagination.As we do not have experience of being a bat our imagination is therefore limited. It is within my capabilities to mimic a bat's behaviour, eat insects, hang upside down, imagine myself flying, but I cannot share the same experiences as a bat as only a bat knows what it is like to have these experiences. One of the main physicalist responses to Jackson's knowledge argument is to agree that Mary does learn something new when she leaves the black and white room. Physicalists say hat Mary has gained a new abil ity rather than a new fact.Remember that Mary possessed all physical information before she left the room. Another physicalist view is that Mary is experiencing a mental state that is a result of the physical impact on her brain when she sees colour. The mental state that happens to Mary is seen as a brain state and therefore deemed to be physical. She already has the knowledge how to see colour but not necessarily knowledge that. Knowledge that is knowing that Paris is the capital of France, whilst knowledge how is knowing how to play the piano.Mary knows how to recognise colour. There is also the matter of causal closure which relates to every physical event having a physical cause. For example, if you bang your toe, is a physical event, which activates the mental state of pain, and to make the decision to hold on to your toe is also a mental state, however it results in your holding your toe, which is a physical event. This physicalist argument is a strong one, but no matter whic h way we look at the mind-body problem no one can have your conscious experiences.There can be countless thought experiments but each subject will see or feel things differently. Philip Goff (2013) states: â€Å"Physicalism is a grand and ambitious project, but there is a thorn in its side: consciousness. The qualities each of us encounters in our conscious experience – the feeling of pain, the sensations of biting into a lemon, what it's like to see red – stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the physicalist's all-encompassing vision of the universe. Consciousness seems to be the one bit of left-over magic that refuses to be physicalised.And it's all the fault of the zombies†. Goff calls these zombies philosophical (or p-zombies) as they are not supposed to e the zombies that we see in films, it is a zombie that is used in philosophical thought experiments. If your zombie, was opened up, everything about its brain structure would be identical with yours. Th e thing that the zombie would lack is conscious experience. It might scream when it is stabbed with a knife, but it is because it is programmed to do so, its reactions will not coincide with feelings of pain of pleasure.Goff, talking about zombies summarises this point â€Å"However, your zombie twin has no inner experience: there is nothing that it's like to be your zombie twin. It's screaming and running away when stabbed isn't accompanied by a feeling of pain. Its smiles are not accompanied by any feeling of pleasure†. Goff puts forward an excellent argument to those who identify brain states with conscious states. He talks about what happens in the brain when you are in pain.If a brain surgeon was to open you up to see what is going on in your head if you had been stabbed with a knife they would see c-fibres firing, but they would not see that you are in pain and the c-fibres are firing, they could see what is happening physically but your conscious xperience of pain woul d not be visible. Goff (2013) explains: â€Å"to say that the feeling of pain is identical with c-fibres firing in your brain, is to say that pain – the thing you sees when she looks in your head after youVe had the knife stuck in you – are one and the same thing.It is to say that we don't have two things – pain and c-fibres firing – but one thing with two labels† Furthermore, if your zombie was opened up and a brain surgeon wanted to observe their brain activity after being stabbed by a knife, again they would observe the c-fibres firing, but there would be the absence of the onscious experience of pain. If you stab your zombie it will create a physical event, with a physical response but you cannot know what it is like to be your zombie, in the same way that your zombie cannot know what it is like to be you.Your zombie cannot be the same as you physically and consciously as you can only be one person. I do not believe that it is possible to compl etely resolve the mind-body problem. I am inclined to lean towards Jackson's point of view that we cannot perceive the colour red from Marys point of view. Not only can we not perceive things visually, if Mary ad been colour blind but gained knowledge how to perceive colours through touch or other senses, it would still be true to say that her experience would be a subjective one.

Counselling Contract Essay

Part 1 1 Trainee and Setting contract 2 BACP, Ethical framework of Good Practice) 3 Confidentiality (Serious harm to self, harm to vulnerable adults, harm to children I may have to breach your confidentiality. Should you talk about Act of terrorism, money laundering, drug trafficking legally bound to report to authorities) 4 Supervision once a month 5 Notes, locked away 6 Have you been to Counselling before? 7 The way in which I work is integrative with a person centered core which means you have the tools within you to move forward and I will help facilitate your growth in a non directive manner without offering advice. 8 Time 9 What brings you to Counselling today. Part 2 at end of first session 1 summarize 2 check safety 3 How do you feel about you and I working together 4 What would you like to gain from our work together 5 Day and time/ number of sessions 6 cancellation policy 7 See you out and about, would you like me to acknowledge you. Hope this is of help to your Supervisee and I can remember it and make it flow on Wednesday. Rachel Counselling contract Part 1 1 Trainee and Setting contract 2 BACP, Ethical framework of Good Practice) 3 Confidentiality (Serious harm to self, harm to vulnerable adults, harm to children I may have to breach your confidentiality. Should you talk about Act of terrorism, money laundering, drug trafficking legally bound to report to authorities) 4 Supervision once a month 5 Notes, locked away 6 Have you been to Counselling before? 7 The way in which I work is integrative with a person centered core which means you have the tools within you to move forward and I will help facilitate your growth in a non directive manner without offering advice. 8 Time 9 What brings you to Counselling today. Part 2 at end of first session 1 summarize 2 check safety 3 How do you feel about you and I working together 4 What would you like to gain from our work together 5 Day and time/ number of sessions 6 cancellation policy 7 See you out and about, would you like me to acknowledge you.

benefits of work integrated learning education

benefits of work integrated learning education While reviewing the literature on the subject of the impact of the Hospitality Curriculum at the Durban University of Technology on Work Integrated Learning. The researcher believes that one needs to deal with the issues separately, that is the issue of Work Integrated Learning firstly and then the issue of the Curriculum at the Durban University of Technology .The chapter reviews literature that is based on the above mentioned issues and it has been divided into different sections. The sections start to talk about Work Integrated Learning in general explaining what it is about and then goes on to talk about the history of Work Integrated Learning and how it was founded. The next idea deals with the importance of Work Integrated Learning, it is then followed by the Work Integrated Learning process and the next section talks about the benefits of Work Integrated Learning. The next area starts talking about the Hospitality Management curriculum at the Durban University of Technology a nd it goes into the next section which discusses the Work Integrated Learning process used at the Durban University of Technology. The trainees experience Work Integrated Learning is dealt with here and then it show the ideal Work Integrated Learning experience for a in service trainee. The next sections talks about Hospitality and leads on to the next section which gives an overview of the Hospitality Industry. The last section discusses the Hospitality Management Programs at different universities and institutions. 2.2.1 Work Integrated Learning (Cooperative education) According to Poppins and Singh (2005) Work Integrated Learning is referred to as an internship program by many people and it provides the learner with real life learning experiences. Work Integrated Learning is included in many academic programs and universities not only in South Africa ,but all over the world. There are many names that Work Integrated Learning is referred to and some of the names are internships, s andwich year, workplace learning and cooperative education. Work Integrated Learning can be defined when a student that is doing a tertiary degree program has a period in time where they undergo professional work in their field of study. It is said that by providing students with real life experiences it is one of the best methods to prepare the students for their future career. Similarly, Schuetze and Sweet(2003) state that there are debates whether the universities and colleges teach graduates the knowledge and skills relevant to work in a knowledge based economy. There are high demands on universities to provide and supply both highly trained workers. To meet their objectives universities have developed alternative strategies to prepare young people for work life and one of these strategies used is Cooperative Education which is also known as Work Integrated Learning. (Suskie, 2009:124) suggests that when students start Work Integrated Learning it is very important that they deve lop their goals and information should be collected by students on their goals from internal and external resources. The internal resources can be a college or universities, mission statement, vision statement and the experiences of recent graduates can be internal resources also. External resources can be goals of the industry, surveys or interviews of current employees. Nipson(2000) states that Work Integrated Learning has introduced the adult world of work to students and it has been described as a learning plan where students earn and with this the students can graduate with the knowledge and experience to be successful in their careers that await them. There are certain environments that support Work Integrated Learning and each of these environments should support a learner or a teacher and also provide support for interactions between the two for learning purposes. According to Wynn(2000) employers can reap many rewards from Work Integrated Learning as it is a less expensive means of recruiting and looking for future employees. It also reduces the cost of keeping existing employees and employers can evaluate the students without making a long term commitment to them.

Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet and the modern world Essay

Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet and the modern world - Essay Example The play illustrates how long term arguments between privileged families can get out of hand. Young men feel obliged to take up arms to defend the family honour. It shows how the normal rules which keep society in order break down in this atmosphere of prejudice and hate. The strongest theme in the play is the way that young people suffer because of the mistakes of their older relatives, and they are prevented from growing up to experience normal young love and passion with their chosen partner. The parents decided for them when and whom they should marry and this causes a lot of trouble. One result of this is that the younger members rise up against their families and lose respect for their elders. The only way to end this kind of situation is to find a way to stop the senseless violence and let peace come out of a new appraisal of each person’s human value, regardless what family they come from. These themes all exist in the modern world, from the gang cultures of our inner cities to the arranged marriages that occur in some cultural groups. Many couples still love each other in spite of the opposition of their families and this is one reason why Romeo and Juliet still makes sense to a modern audience, even though it was written over four hundred years ago. The play opens with the words â€Å"Two households, both alike in dignity,/In fair Verona, where we lay our scene† (Prologue: lines 1-2) and this tells the audience what the fundamental tension of the play will be. The chorus reveals that the main characters will love each other and will die, and that this will be the way that the â€Å"ancient grudge† between the two families will be removed. One indication of the strength of the hatred that exists between the families is the way that they call each other names such as â€Å"A dog of the house of Montague† (Act 1 , scene 1, line 7) or â€Å"A dog of that house (Act 1, scene 1, line 10) and â€Å"Thou villain Capulet (Act 1, s cene 1, line 76). The young men challenge each other to draw their swords, and it is clear that the only reason they want to fight is because they are sworn enemies. Gang rivalry is very often carried out by men. They are motivated by pride and arrogance, wanting to show off their strength . Tybalt even reveals that he hates the idea of peace as much as he hates the Montagues. (Act 1, scene 1, line 67-68) There does not seem to be any reason for the hatred other than that the people who bear the opposite name are the enemy. This kind of unthinking prejudice leads to all kinds of violence even in the present day and the carrying of weapons is a sign that this is a real grudge with serious consequences. The women seem to be more reasonable, and Montague’s wife tries to hold him back, even though he resists her. This kind of behaviour can be seen in the modern world when very strict fathers try to lock up their daughters and prevent them from going out and seeing other people, e specially men. They have too much power over others, and they use it to make people obey their will. In gang warfare it is a matter of pride to carry guns or knives, and very often the only people who try to stop the violence from getting worse are the mothers, sisters and girlfriends who have lost their loved ones. The Prince in the play represents the force of law and order. There was no such thing as a police force in the time of Shakespeare, and so the rulers had to find other ways to make sure that people kept the law of the land. In this case he summons the two older representatives of the families to come and see him. Capulet has to go with him immediately, and Montague is to come in the afternoon. This is a bit like them being arrested so that they can be told what is right and what is wrong, and they

Critical Analysis of Source(s) and Research Log Essay

Critical Analysis of Source(s) and Research Log - Essay Example The first e-library used was http://www.bbk.ac.uk/lib/elib/ and the second was www.intute.co.uk. In addition, relevant information was searched using the search engine http://www.google.co.in. At first, search was conducted using key words and phrases like ‘Corporate Social Responsibility and employees’, ‘Impact of CSR on workers’, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility and Productivity’, and so on. Later on, prepositions were avoided to make the search more accurate. When the term ‘corporate social responsibility’ was used for search in http://www.bbk.ac.uk/lib/elib/, the number of titles obtained was plenty but none of the first thirty peer reviewed scholarly articles directly addressed the issue how CSR influences employee perception of happiness and employee motivation. Even when the key phrase was changed to ‘corporate social responsibility motivation’ and ‘corporate social responsibility happiness’, no usef ul article about the impact of CSR on employees was found. Most of the articles were about the history of CSR, how to implement a good CSR, CSR and public image, and if CSR raises profitability in the long term. When the same phrases and words were used for search in www.intute.co.uk, it provided a number of results ranging from links to various sites and organisations that provide information on corporate social responsibility. A useful link seemed the one to the International Journal of Business in Society and the International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research published by Emerald. As the link http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=1355-2554 was followed, I reached the Emerald published journals. There I got 14626 results when the search was conducted using ‘corporate social responsibility’ as the key term in International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research from volume 1 to volume 17 that consist of 176 issues as available in htt p://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=1355-2554. However, when the first thirty journals from the available results were analysed, it was found that just one among them addressed the issue directly. It was ‘Corporate social responsibility: organisational identification and motivation’ written by Michal Mozes, Zvi Josman, and Eyal Yaniv in the Social Responsibility Journal, Volume 7, Issue 2 of 2011. When ‘corporate social responsibility and employees commitment’ was used as key words for search in www.google.co.in, a number of journal articles ranging from ‘Employee perceptions of corporate social responsibility’ by Sarah Stawiski, Jennifer J. Deal, and William Gentry of Center for Creative Leadership, issued in June 2010, ‘Corporate social responsibility: the key role of human resource management’ by Suparn Sharma, Joity Sharma and Arti Devi, published in the Business Intelligence Journal of January 2009, ‘Corporate s ocial responsibility influence on employees’ by Jean Pascal Gond, Assaad El-Akremi, Jacques Igalens, and Valerie Swaen, and many more websites and magazines like Forbes (http://www.forbes.com ) that provide information about corporate social responsibility and employee happiness were located. However, as very few of them were articles published in journals, they lacked authority. One of the most useful articles identified in the search was ‘

Health Club Business Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Health Club Business - Coursework Example ....................................13 16.0 Risk management .......................................................................14 Bibliography Executive summary N&M is a ladies-only health centre located in Luton. It offers physical fitness programs that are specially designed to meet the unique needs of women. The facility targets a selected portion of the ladies market, mainly the middle and upper class women. This business plan outlines the mission, aims and goals of the business. It also makes an extensive analysis of its market, customer base, competitors and the marketing strategy that the business will use in order to venture into the market. There is a clear outline of the kind of people the business requires for it to be successfully operational and their expected compensations for the various groups of people it will employ. In addition, the plan indicates a detailed profit forecast and detailed monthly cash flow forecast for the first year of operation. This is followe d by an explanation of the chances of success of the project and an acknowledgment of the probability of its failure. Finally, it outlines possible risks and potential ways of managing them. 1.0 Introduction There is an increased need to create a personalised environment for women so as to encourage them to pursue their fitness goals. The number of women who have an active life but do not seem to spend sufficient time in gyms or other physical fitness activities is higher. It is also evidently, there a high number of women looking for fitness centres where their unique needs can be met. It is for these reasons that N&M was established as a female only physical fitness gym. 2.0 Business details N&M is a health club, a female-only physical fitness gym that offers... This research will begin with the statement that there is an increased need to create a personalised environment for women so as to encourage them to pursue their fitness goals. The number of women who have an active life but do not seem to spend sufficient time in gyms or other physical fitness activities is higher. It is also evidently, there a high number of women looking for fitness centres where their unique needs can be met. It is for these reasons that N&M was established as a female only physical fitness gym. N&M is a health club, a female-only physical fitness gym that offers exercise equipment, massage, swimming lessons, weight reduction and weight training program, fitness classes, and childcare centre. The centre seeks to create the most conducive and personalised environment where females of ages 18-50 can pursue their fitness and weight reduction goals. The business specifically focuses on urban professional women, young mothers and urban entrepreneurial women who are l ooking for a fitness centre that can focus on their unique needs. The childcare centre provides a range of play activities that keep the children of the clients happy. From the selection of machines, professional training staff to the organisation of the childcare centre, Smart Ladies has created a supportive fitness and weight reduction experience that will attract new members by a word of mouth. N&M operates as a sole proprietorship. The business will be domiciled in a strategic location in an uptown street in Luton.

Film review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Film review - Essay Example He found suicide to be the only way to get away from the troubles of life. But the twist which has been noted in the film is that Kim surviving from suicide. He is washed away to an island where he finds himself alone. He tries to go back to the normal life but he found himself to be stuck on the island. With the passage of some time, he finds himself comfortable on the island because he was away from debt collectors. It should be noted that the island could be viewed from the town tall skyscrapers. Jung-Yeon, a young lady who has been staying at her flat for about a very long time liked to take photos. She finds Kim when she took close photo shots of the moon. It comes to understanding of Jung Yeon that she has found herself an alien on the island (Hae-Joon). Since the genre of the film is adventure, the story has been set up in outdoor locations mostly. As a matter of fact, the director has created an easy transition of story from city life to the deserted island. The audience watching the movie will actually relate themselves with the situation of being deserted at an island. The film provides an interesting feel to the audiences because the story merely depicts people who are running from communicating with people. That is also visible through the context Kim and Yeon characters. Yeon was not leaving her flat which allowed her to get away with the communication process of people directly and Kim found island to be better than being in the town where he had the chance of skipping payments and burdens he could not tolerate (Hae-Joon). The usage of cinematography has been well managed in the film which makes it quite different from other films of similar plot line. The deserted island becomes a new land for Yeon who thought that she had witnessed aliens. The film provides both fictional and non-fictional feel to the plot making audiences of all ages watch and like it. There has been a lot of buzz in the media about this film because it provided a different

Business Entities, Laws, and Regulations Term Paper

Business Entities, Laws, and Regulations - Term Paper Example This paper intends to look at different business scenarios and the regulations required by the government for one to run the business. Restaurant A restaurant is a place where people visit to get refreshment and get some delicious meals. In some restaurants, the proprietors can introduce other entertainment facilities to offer best sites for recreation. Miriam, Jose, and Luo plan to open up a restaurant that will offer recreational activities like watching of a large screen while enjoying. There are different types of partnership that the business entrepreneurs can form and run their businesses as a group. For example, they can form a General partnership or a limited partnership. General partners will work closely together every day and share all the responsibilities of the business. General partnership does not have any liability protection (Hillman, 1997). This means that all members are responsible for any loss that the company may incur (Howard, 2004). On the other hand, limited partnership has some of the members actively participating in the daily running of the business while others remain dormant and deal with duties not related to the business enterprise. These dormant partners may contribute some amount of capital to enable the business run. They then share the profit that the business gets through the agreed procedure. It is very possible for the three to open up their enterprise and run according to their wish. In this context, they will form a general partnership whereby Miriam does not have ample time to stay at the restaurant frequently, investigative partner, while the other two will be the managing partners. Formation of a general partnership for Miriam, Joe, and Luo can be completed through a certain procedure. First, they must be more than one person, they must be business partners, they should be co-owners of the business and the business must be for income generating purpose only (Drinker, 2002). Since Miriam has enough capital and the othe r two can work at the restaurant, it is possible for them to share the returns that arise from their work. Each person reports only the share of the total business profit on his or her returns. This is because partner ships do not have any tax liability. Thus, each individual is required by law to file a report with the government to explain all profits and losses that arise from the partnership. This is to enable the government to trace the partner’s tax on income. In the second scenario, Tara and Akiva want to start a birth centre for the expectant mothers to get services. The two have the obligation to come together and form a general partnership where they will be able to share all the profits and losses together in the course of running the business. It indicates that the business will have unlimited liabilities. Akiva and Tara will have to share responsibilities to enable smooth running of the business. Since this is a general partnership, it is necessary for the two to agree on how to handle issues of the birth centre (Hillman, 1997). Tara can be involved in employment and employee management while Akiva can deal with patients and their issues. The partners expect to take up a large loan to provide the business with the capital required. It law requires that Akiva and Tara should have a document that indicate they are in partnership. They must have minutes of their meeting

Technology stratege Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Technology stratege - Term Paper Example It is in this context that technology can benefit business performance. The role of technology strategy in the development of business performance is analyzed in this study. The literature published on this subject is presented and critically discussed. Reference is made to the practical needs and implications of technology strategy as identified in Tesco and Waitrose, two major retailers in the British market. It is concluded that technology strategy can be used for supporting the growth of modern firms but only under the terms that it is carefully planned and monitored. The management of technology in modern businesses has many different aspects. In order to identify the most appropriate technology management polices for firms in different industries it is necessary to understand the role of technology within organizations. Technology has been characterized as a ‘business asset’ (Watkins 10); despite common business assets, technology is difficult to be evaluated (Watkins 10). This difficulty results by the fact that a specific technological tool, for instance, machinery, can be evaluated by referring to its ‘acquisition cost, book value or replacement value’ (Watkins 11). One of the most important characteristics of technology is its ‘re-useability’ (Watkins 11), i.e. its potential to be used in several operational activities. The above issues need to be taken into consideration by managers of organizations that have to introduce a technology strategy that will respond to all organizational needs. Particular measures should be also taken for the ‘flow control’ (Watkins 11) of the technology used across the organization. The term ‘flow control’ refers to all the tasks in which a specific business (technological) asset can be involved, either directly or indirectly. The ability of business managers to introduce appropriate

Chartered Portfolio Manager- Week 8 Discussion Post and Student Essay

Chartered Portfolio Manager- Week 8 Discussion Post and Student Responses - Essay Example This is to help standardize the type and content of messages posted by financial firms on social media and to eliminate fraudulent content (Flynn, 2012). Among the rules to be followed include ensuring that there is explanation of how a firm is using social media to advertise, ensuring that there is a record of all communication on social media, and ensuring that a firm is accountable for all messages posted on social media by their employees (Bahadur et al., 2012). After highlighting the importance of social media to individuals and firms, Roland should also add the limits that should be in place to ensure safe and efficient advertising of financial firms. I agree to the rest of the post where Roland analyses the advantages and functions of FINRA to businesses and their clients but I think that he should consider adding the risks of financial advisors to firms. When Kyrette explains what social media advertising is all about, he should also consider stating the risks associated with financial advisors. In addition to this, he should also consider adding information on what FINRA stands for, and its functions in advertising when he gives advantages of social media to professionals. Although Sherard’s gives a clear discussion on who financial advisors are and their main functions in a financial firm, Sherard should consider adding the rules and regulations put in place by FINRA. After highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of financial advertisers to firms, Sherard should give an opinion whether he recommends financial advisors to firms or

Organizational Behavior Issues in Aussieco Essay Example for Free

Organizational Behavior Issues in Aussieco Essay Aussieco, an Australian company established as a small manufacturing and service operation company in 1962 is now a fully expanded company with 600 employees. The company built its reputation on a single product holding 90 per cent of the Australian market in the 1980. Over the years the market holding has gone down by 30 percent in spite of the product being unique and company facing little competition in the market (Jones,Gal, n. d) The downturn in Aussieco’s performance is mainly due to issues with the company’s management and organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior refers to ‘the understanding, prediction and management of human behavior in organizations’ (Luthans,2010). It is the study of individuals and their behavior in a work place. A company’s performance and outcome largely depends on its organizational behavior as it is an interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication and management. Aussieco’s organizational behavior issues can be explained through Henri Fayol’s 14 management principles. Henri Fayol’s theory of administration and organizational behavior focuses on the personal duties of management and managerial effectiveness which aussieco lacked. (Fayol,1971). The company has inexperienced staff and no specialization as major high authority staff is friends and family without skilled knowledge. The executive managing director is the owner’s nephew with no practical or industrial experience. The production supervisor is the production manager’s best friend who has little knowledge of the daily production tasks as he is a carpet fitter by qualification. Employees at the operative level are migrant labor mostly lacking formal qualification. On diversification, management failed to understand the changing market needs. Aussieco follows the power culture where control is centralized. The major motivational or driving force is fear (Luthans,2011). Suggestions and personal preferences are not welcomed. The owner-chairman reacts in a strong negative way if any manager’s opinion differentiates from his. This lack of consultation leads to staff feeling de motivated and undervalued. Though there has been division of labor and departmentalization in the company but the managers lack authority and responsibility. On the instance of owner accepting order from a bad debt customer without consulting the general manager shows lack of authority for the manager. Owner’s dictatorial attitude and ignorance of modern trends hold back the dedicated managers to improve and bring changes in the company’s working, as they are either fired from the job or become his instant enemies. The company lacks discipline and employee commitment. Lack of loyalty, no willingness to put high levels of effort, no belief in the company’s goals and vales and lack of faith in the management all together leads to all the issues of Aussieco. During lunch hours the senior management and sales staff have access to unlimited alcohol in the workplace. Assembly line workers underperform and hold back production with vague excuses. Subordination of individual interest over the company’s interest and goal is one of the major problems of Aussieco Employees overtime to get paid extra and not for productive outcomes. Also the senior programmer in spite of completing his work order uses his work holiday for personal matters. There is lack of equity and justice among the employees. The rule being everyone must vacate office during lunch break but exceptions for the senior management and sales staff that eat in the work place, operatives and other staff are allowed no food or drinks in the workplace. The migrant staff is treated well and better than its own internal staff. There are less internal promotions. High employee turnover, no stability of tenure of personnel is another major issue with Aussieco. To attain maximum productivity of personnel it is essential to have a stable workforce, which Aussieco lacks. There are frequent mass resignations in the company. No production manager lasts for more than 3 years in the company. The post of personnel manager is vacant since 2 months. Employees have no job security and thus are not fully committed to their work. This further increases the company’s costs of recruitment,selection and training. There is lack of motivation and initiative by the management for the welfare of the employees. There is lack of rewards, appraisal and bonus. The workshop roofs are without insulation and leak during heavy rain, no doors and filthy windows point toward bad and unhealthy working conditions. This even gave a loss of $AUS 500,000 when water leakage blew a computerized robot. No parking area provided for the employees, who reach frustrated to the office,which in turn shows in their slow performance. Lack of structured work, irregularity in work and no proper accounts and records maintained by the managers is another organizational issue for Aussieco. Though the record showed a stock of 4700 resistors but none could be located. A welder forgotten by the company after fitting of new automat is idle and has no contribution in the company. Reasons why these problems occur. One of the major reason for the organizational issues of aussieco is the employee attitude. Job satisfaction focuses on employee attitude and organizational commitment focuses on their attitude towards the organization. Job satisfaction is determined by how well the expectations of employees are met in return of their output (Luthans,2011). The aspects of job satisfication are not met by Aussieco. Employees of Aussieco are unsatisfied with the kind of work they get, the job provides less opportunities for learning and less responsibility. There is lack of remuneration and pay, less promotional opportunities, bad working conditions. This high level of job dissatisfaction of employees reflects in their low performance, company’s low profits, high employee turnover, high absenteeism and low level of commitment towards the company. The attitude of employees in an organization is largely influenced by the kind of environment the organization posses and further the attitude of employees affects their efficiency and performance at the organizational level. The environment of aussieco is not employee friendly thus employees have a negative attitude. Employee traits can be best explained by the Five factor model. Job performance is highly dependent on an individual’s conscientiousness (i. e dutifulness, persistence, industriousness) and emotional stability (i. anxiety, security, suspiciousness). In Aussieco employees had low conscientiousness and low emotional stability which affected their overall task performance and contextual performance. Organizational commitment is an important attitude toward the employers and the company. It is the extent to which we identify with them. Most of the employees, posses’ continuance organizational commitment, which is a calculative approach, where they chose to continue working in the company because they ‘have to’ rather than their want or obligation. This attitude is influenced by perceived costs of leaving the company, lack of opportunities, age, peer pressure, society expectations etc. Employees of Aussieco developed this attitude because of the mechanistic treatment they receive and lack of empathy from management. Autocracy is the concentration of power and authority in hands of one person. The management of Aussieco has an autocratic structure with the owner having unlimited power and absolute authority. There is a strict hierarchical structure; orders are sent from top level to bottom level. Ideas, personal opinions and suggestions are unwelcomed. In this management style managers believe workers must be controlled to ensure maximum productivity (Luthans,2011). Aussieco’s structure can be best explained by Douglas McGregor’s theory X. This theory represents an assumption of conflicting and negative working attitudes. The managers assume an average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible, thus must be forced with threat of punishment to achieve organizational goals. An average person prefers to be directed and avoids responsibility. This approach encourages deadline and ultimatums, arrogant and demanding managers, mechanistic approach, no concern toward staff and one way communication (Jeremiah,2009). In Aussieco this approach resulted in a negative attitude by the employees, made them insecure and unhappy. Lack of Taylor’s scientific management. Frederik winslow taylor’s key idea was to improve industrial efficiency scientifically. He encouraged scientifically selecting and training workers and regularly monitoring their work to improve efficiency which also improves work man happiness and positivity (Lynch,1984). Aussieco lacked scientific selection, training and development of workmen and passively left them to train themselves. Managers did not supervise and provide instructions to the employees and there was no division of work between managers and workers. There was lack of specialization, standardized and systematic approach. The company continuously changed its suppliers for cheapest material available, a supplier providing 99. 5% quality level charging $20 per unit was replaced with a supplier charging $12per unit. The quality of the product suffered, increasing customer complaints and affecting the goodwill of the company negatively. There is lack of communication between departments, department managers and workers and senior management and managers. The senior management is unapproachable and not interested in the issues of the company and workers. Though Taylorism has faced criticism of exploitation, mechanistic approach etc but in relation to Aussieco, the company needs to adapt certain principles of Taylorism for a better organizational working. To conclude Ausseico’s major issue is organizational and management structure. The company should have a more humanistic and realistic approach with a right balance of authority and responsibility.

Chinese Face Reading Essay Example for Free

Chinese Face Reading Essay Picking up personality can be a very fun and adventurous process. Many cultural societies have many ways to do it and so many people to test; you’re never going to get the same results. One very interesting way of determining someone’s personality is Face Reading. This is a type of physiognomy that can show you your hidden personality, history, current situation, your future, even how well your health is. Face reading was developed from Ancient China by a man known as Mr. Guiguzi (481-221 B. C. ). Although it is one of many ways of measuring personalities, face reading has twelve ways of being used. The first method is called Fortune House, or also known as â€Å"Fude Gong†. This method shows whether your life is going smoothly or not. When reading someone’s face with Fortune House, the face should be round and smooth with no markings or scars that are out of the ordinary. If there happens to be any marks or scars, they will show any issues you have, such as illness, bad relationships, financial troubles, etc. The second method of face reading is Parents House, or â€Å"Fumu Gong†. It tells you whether you had a good or not so good childhood with your parents. This procedure reads the face by its forehead. If it is big, round and/or shinning, means the individual had an excellent relationship with his parents and had an enjoyable life as a child. However, if the forehead was ugly and/or damaged, then the person had a painful and difficult life when he/she was young. The next way is called Career House, or also known as â€Å"Guanlu Gong†. This method is somewhat similar to the Fortune House because it is searching for round and smooth features on a face as well. If your cheek bones stick out and have eyebrows that project, you will most likely have a better chance of having a successful career. House of Travel, or â€Å"Qianyi Gong†, would be another style of face reading someone. It is designed to examine how your travels from one place to another would be positive or negative. When you have a feature of scars or lines on your face, means you shouldn’t go anywhere at all. So whenever you would like to go out to eat at a restaurant and need to drive or take a bus, it might be safer to have a pizza delivered to where ever you are staying. Another method is Assets House (Tianzai Gong), which emphasizes the eyes as an indicator of your intelligence, temperament, and financial assets. If your eyes are set deep into your head, or if you are constantly looking high, you are considered an idiot. Narrow eye lids would represent impatience in an individual. Large pupils, clean and clear whites, and large eyes are favorable characteristics of a person’s Assets House. Health House (Jie Going) governs whether your body has excellent health or is ill. Wrinkles, stains, or other marks anywhere that is found shows that you need to go to the clinic for a checkup. However, having none of the disliked features on the face means you have nothing to worry about when it comes to your health. Any characteristic from the eyebrows and above will symbolize House of Siblings (Xiongdi Gong). This particular type of face reading decides your friendship with other people in your life. It also shows how well your genetic make-up is when the person was conceived. Thick, dark, long, and smooth eyebrows that are high above eyes tell the face reader that the subject is a brave, affectionate, and relaxed person. However, if your face shows the opposite of these facial features including scars and lines, you basically have completely different qualities. Life House (Ming Gong) will tell the person how easy or challenging your life would be. The level of difficulty in your life is determined by how close the eyebrows are to each other, and any dimples and/or marks. If smooth and shinny like the other face reading styles, shows a comfortable an easy journey in his/her life. Like the other face reading methods, House of Children (Ernu Gong) looks for smooth and round features for positive outlook in the individual. If the face seems to be gentle and round, shows that you have a successful love and sex life. Although, if you show moles or other disfeatures, you may have issues when it comes to sex and you may have a difficult time parenting your children in regards to their development and well-being. House of Marriage (Qigie Gong) shows the reader whether or not the man/woman’s marriage is going well. So fundamentally, when somebody has a gentle, smooth, and clean face, it indicates a happy marriage. A receding and/or scarred face with moles means you have a wife that you might wish to divorce. Wealth house (Caibo Gong), is quite different from most of the other Houses. This style of face reading is determined by the nose. If a nose that is large and round with nostrils that does not show and a straight bridge, then the person has excellent health, a positive attitude, and has a sufficient and satisfying amount of wealth. When the nose has certain deficiencies, the person will meet these three possible situations. If the subject is to have a crooked nose with unhidden nostrils, shows that they have a problem with their money, career, and personality. If it shows any blood vassals, indicates that he/she is on the verge of becoming bankrupt. And if the nose turns into a bloody red, it signals that tragedy and an unpleasant life will be stepping up to his/her door soon. Finally, the Popularity House (Nupu Going) is the house that governs your relationship with your friends and acquaintances, and what will come to be when you grow much older. When the face is round and smooth, then the individual is graced with popularity, and when the old age comes, you will have much support from others. But, if it is not round or smooth, you need to prepare yourself for supporting yourself instead of others helping. An excellent example of some of these face reading methods is a well known person, Quasimodo, also named as â€Å"The Hunchback of Notre-Dame†. He is a man with a face that most people would not be attracted, and is definitely unable to straighten his back. His facial features show how much his life is painful. They also show how he has had a rough and emotional time growing up when he was an infant. A disfigured face brings you nothing but negativity and misery in that person’s life. But having attractive facial features will always give you the upper-hand when reading an individual’s face. All the styles of face reading are determined by how smooth the face is, the amount of scars, lines, moles, shape of the nose, and wrinkles the face has. Each feature of the face tells about your past, what is happening now, and what is yet to come.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes mellitus Discuss the possible role of psychological factors throughout the course of an illness: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Health psychology is a topical development in the integration of biomedical and social sciences in health care. It addresses the role of psychological factors in the cause, progression, and outcome of health and illness (Ogden, 2007). Psychological theories can guide health education and promotion, and offer the health care practitioner a structured approach to understanding and meeting the health needs of health and social care service users (Morrison and Bennett, 2009). The appraisal of health psychology models can assist practitioners in evaluating their contribution to service users understanding of health, behaviours relating to health and the practice of health care. Appraisal and evaluation enable health care workers to apply psychological models and theories when analysing aspects of health and behaviour relevant to practice (Marks et al, 2005). The ethos of health psychology is that of treating the ‘whole person, not just the physical adaptations that transpire associated with illness. This might embrace behaviour change, urging modifications in beliefs, and coping strategies, and acquiescence with medical advice. As the ‘whole self is treated, the individual becomes to a certain extent responsible for their treatment. For example, an individual may have a responsibility to take medication, and to change beliefs and behaviour. Therefore, the individual is no longer seen as a victim. From this viewpoint, health and illness are on a continuum. Instead of being either healthy or ill, individuals may move on along a continuum from healthiness to illness and back again. Health psychology also argues that the mind and body act together. It perceives psychological issues as not only potential effects of illness, but as adding to all the phases of health, from maximum healthiness to illness (Morrison and Bennett, 2009). Health psychology is concerned primarily with intrinsic factors, especially individual perceptions of health-related behaviour. Health behaviour, defined as behaviour related to health status, is becoming increasingly important. Public health policy has increased the emphasis on individual responsibility and choice and because of this; there is a corresponding need to improve understanding of individual motivations that affect those choices and health-related behaviours (Marks et al, 2005). The health behaviours studied by psychologists are varied, but the most commonly studied health behaviours have immediate or long-term implications for individual health, and are partially within the control of the individual (Ogden, 2007). Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, is a serious and progressive disease. It is chronic in nature and has no known cure. It is the fourth most common cause of death in most developed countries (UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group, 1998a). Although no exact figures are available, it has been suggested that by the year 2010 there would be 3.5 million people with diabetes in the United Kingdom (UK). However, approximately 750,000 of the estimated number may be undiagnosed (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Diabetes UK campaigns to raise awareness of type 2 diabetes because if left undiagnosed, the condition can result in long-term complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and an increased risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. The total number of people with diabetes has increased by 75% over the last six years and the incidence in the UK is escalating at a faster rate than in the United States (Gonzà ¡lez et al,2009). There is a higher incidence of type 2 diabetes in people with South Asian or African descent (Department of Health, 2007). One of the reasons for this is thought to be that these ethnic groups have increased insulin resistance. Signs of type 2 diabetes are already present in UK children of South Asian and African-Caribbean origin at ten years of age, according to research funded jointly by the British Heart Foundation and the Wellcome Trust (Whincup et al,2010). The prevalence of type 2 diabetes increases with age to as much as one in ten in those aged 65 years. The lifetime risk of developing the condition in the UK is greater than 10% (Leese, 1991). Diabetes-related complications can have a major effect on the individual and family members, and are costly to the patient. A study undertaken by Bottomley (2001) examined the costs of living of patients with diabetes complications, including taking time off work and transport costs for hospital appointments. The study showed that the cost of treating someone with type 2 diabetes with microvascular and macrovascular complications was  £5,132 compared to  £920 for someone who does not have diabetes-related complications (Bottomley 2001). This also has implications for the National Health Service (NHS) in terms of the financial burden of managing and treating the condition and the use of resources. It has been estimated that the cost of treating diabetes nationally adds up to approximately 9% of the NHS annual budget, although most of that is used to treat associated long-term complications, such as kidney failure, blindness, amputations and organ transplantation, rather than the provision of medication (Bottomley, 2001). With regard to type 2 diabetes, psychological theories and models have a long history of informing attempts to change behaviour and improve emotional well-being. Over recent years, many clinical guidelines in the UK by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) have included recommendations for psychological interventions for long-term conditions. Evidence-based recommendations have been made not only for the treatment of associated mental health problems such as depression and anxiety (NICE, 2009; NICE, 2004) but also for physical health conditions such as obesity (NICE, 2007) and changing behaviour related to public health issues such as smoking and lack of exercise (NICE; 2007). The aim of this essay is to explore the psychological implications for a person suffering from type 2 diabetes and others involved in the experience of that illness. Type 2 diabetes, is caused as the result of reduced secretion of insulin and to peripheral resistance to the action of insulin; that is, the insulin in the body does not have its usual biological effect. It can often be controlled by diet and exercise when first diagnosed, but many patients require oral hypoglycaemic agents or insulin in order to maintain satisfactory glycaemic control and prevent the complications of diabetes (Diabetes UK, 2008a). To reduce the risk of long-term complications, both macrovascular and microvascular, people with type 2 diabetes need access to appropriate, individualised education, which informs them about the risks associated with the condition. Information relating to lifestyle changes such as healthy eating, increasing activity levels, and smoking cessation are vital (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Some people accept their diagnosis of diabetes and all that this means, and manage to adapt to their new lifestyle, but others find it difficult. Changes will need to be made to the type of food they eat, the amount they eat of particular foods and perhaps to the time at which they eat their meals. As a consequence of the required changes to lifestyle, it is not surprising that many people need some professional psychological support (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Diabetes may have an impact on peoples careers, driving, and insurance policies (life, driving, and travel). Difficulties surrounding holidays, work or travel abroad may prove insurmountable without support. People with diabetes who are also caring for others, for example children or elderly relatives, may find it very difficult to put themselves first (Diabetes UK, 2008a). Some people who have been diagnosed as having diabetes feel that they have been condemned to a life where everything has to be planned. There are, however, support networks available. For example Diabetes UK, a charity that supports people with diabetes, their families and the health professionals who care for them, has local and regional branches where people can meet and discuss problems and learn from each other how they manage their day-to-day-life (Diabetes UK, 2008a). The majority of people with type 2 diabetes are insulin resistant. Obesity exacerbates insulin resistance. As many as 80% of people with type 2 diabetes are obese at the time of diagnosis (Marks, 1996). Weight loss not only improves insulin resistance, but also lowers blood glucose, lipid levels, and blood pressure. Cardiovascular disease is often present in people with type 2 diabetes. The presence of insulin resistance accelerates atherosclerosis, leading to macrovascular complications such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. The mechanisms responsible for this are thought to be hyperinsulinaemia, dyslipidaemia and hypertension (Garber, 1998). However, microvascular problems such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy still occur. The mechanism responsible is thought to be hyperglycaemia (Garber, 1998). Therefore, good blood glucose control is of crucial importance. Although the prognosis for people with type 2 diabetes mellitus is less than favourable, evidence has shown that making major lifestyle changes, such as having a healthy diet, smoking cessation, and increasing activity levels, can reduce the risk of long-term complications (UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group, 1998a). However, using the threat of long-term complications as a means of inducing lifestyle or behaviour changes has not proved to have any prolonged beneficial effect (Polonsky, 1999). Continued support and appropriate education is required to empower individuals to take charge of their condition and make appropriate and timely therapeutic decisions. The healthcare professional and the individual must decide on the most appropriate treatment regimen to provide optimum care and the best medical outcome (Marks et al, 2005). NICE published a document in 2008 entitled ‘CG66: Type 2 diabetes which recommended that all people with diabetes should be offered structured educat ion, provided by a trained specialist team of healthcare professionals (NICE, 2008). The utilisation of theoretical health psychology models can assist these specialist team practitioner in empowering individuals with type 2 diabetes to contemplate and instigate the changes in lifestyle behaviours such as smoking, lack of exercise and unhealthy eating habits that have adverse consequences on long-term health outcomes. With regard to health psychology, as previously mentioned, health psychology is concerned primarily with intrinsic factors, especially individual perceptions of health-related behaviour. Attributing health-related behaviours to internal or external factors has been discussed in relation to the concept of a health locus of control. Individuals differ as to whether they regard events as controllable by them (an internal locus of control) or uncontrollable by them (an external locus of control) (Ogden, 2007). Accessing diabetes related health services for testing or treatment could be viewed from either perspective. The healthcare professional is perceived to be a powerful individual who can diagnose and treat diabetes (external); however, by accessing services the individual is taking responsibility for determining their own health status (internal). It is useful for the healthcare practitioner to consider that in attending diabetic health services the individual has made an initial st ep in taking control of their own health needs (Marks et al, 2005). Individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to act in concordance with advice from a health professional than those with an external locus of control (Ogden, 2007). Knowing this can assist practitioners in their communication style with individuals who have type 2 diabetes. Identifying the specific needs of the individual, by understanding their locus of control, can help the healthcare practitioner to tailor the assessment (Marks et al, 2005). When an individual has a sense of responsibility for actions or behaviours that exposed them to a potential risk of diabetic complications, the practitioner can work on exploring the circumstances that surrounded those behaviours. The individual may already feel motivated to change these circumstances. In the case of a client who does not recognise that their own behaviour or actions were a contributory factor in posing a risk of behaviour related complications, the practitioner should focus on developing the individuals leve l of awareness to shift their locus of control from the external to the internal. For example, the individual who perceives that taking responsibility for healthy eating use is always that of their partner (Ogden, 2007). Self-management for chronic illnesses such as type 2 diabetes requires adherence to treatment regimens and behavioural change, as well as the acquisition of new coping strategies, because symptoms have a great effect on many areas of life (Glasgow, 1991; Kravitz et al,1993). For many individuals, optimum self-management is often difficult to achieve, as indicated by poor rates of adherence to treatment, reduced quality of life, and poor psychological wellbeing, effects that are frequently reported in several chronic illnesses (Rubin and Peyrot, 1999). Self-management interventions aim to enable individuals to take control of their condition and be actively involved in management and treatment choices. In the 1980s, psychological theory was applied to develop theoretical models and their constructs have had a particular effect on the development of self-management interventions. The Health Belief Model (Becker 1974) defines two related appraisal processes undertaken by the healthcare practitioner in partnership with an individual: the threat of illness and the behavioural response to that threat. Threat appraisal involves consideration of the individuals perceived susceptibility to an illness and its anticipated severity. Behavioural response involves considering the costs and benefits of engaging in behaviours likely to reduce the threat of disease. It can be useful for the healthcare practitioner to establish the clients perception of risk and implications of their adverse health behaviours when discussing the reasons for healthy eating, increasing exercise, and smoking cessation. It is also important to discuss the likely impact of diabetes on the individuals lifestyle and behaviour (Marks et al, 2005). The Health Belief Model can be applied to evaluate the risk of lifestyle changes. The healthcare professional can initiate structured discussion with the individual to identify their educational needs, particularly around developing a realistic understanding of risk factors associated with diabetes and unhealthy eating habits, lack of exercise and smoking. It is important for the healthcare practitioner to discuss the efficacy of changes in the above in prevention of diabetic complications, while discussing other methods of behaviour modification in context (Marks et al, 2005). It is also important to establish that the individual feels confident in the practicalities of and behavioural change. Therefore, the healthcare practitioner must support the diabetic in behaviour change by giving practical health education advice on the issues of healthy eating, the benefits of exercise and the importance of giving up smoking (Marks et al, 2005). The Protection Motivation Theory (Rogers 1975, 1983) expands the Health Belief Model to include four components that predict behavioural intentions to improve health-related behaviour, or intention to modify behaviour. These include self-efficacy, responsive effectiveness, severity, and vulnerability. In social cognitive theory, behaviour is thought to be affected by expectations, with individuals confidence in their ability to perform a given behaviour (self-efficacy) particularly important (Bandura, 1992). Therefore, self-efficacy can be said to be the belief in ones ability to control personal actions (Bandura, 1992), and is comparable with the concept of internal locus of control. It is based on past experience and evokes behaviour concordant with an individuals capabilities. Self-efficacy is distinct from unrealistic optimism and does not elicit unreasonable risk-taking (Ogden, 2007). Within the context of smoking and diabetes, an example of self-efficacy might be, ‘I am c onfident that I can take responsibility for protecting myself from increasing the risk of further complications by giving up smoking. This concept has been used in self-management interventions through the teaching of skills, such as problem solving and goal setting, to increase self-efficacy. Again, in type 2 diabetes, this could mean the acquisition of knowledge relating to healthy eating principles and putting that knowledge into practice by avoiding foods that would make the blood glucose rise quickly. The goal would be to incorporate this behaviour into daily life on a long-term basis (Marks et al, 2005). Behavioural intention can also be predicted by severity, for example: ‘Diabetes will have serious implications for my health and lifestyle, but conversely, ‘Good blood glucose control will decrease the risk of diabetic complications. The fourth predictor of behavioural intention is vulnerability, which in the context of diabetes may be the likelihood of cardiovascular disease or diabetic retinopathy occurring. Rogers (1983) later suggested a fifth component of fear in response to education or information as a predictor of behavioural intention. The concepts of severity, vulnerability, and fear outlined in Protection Motivation Theory relate to the concept of threat appraisal, as discussed in the context of the Health Belief Model. Self-efficacy and response effectiveness, on the other hand, relate to the individuals coping response, which is the behaviour intention. If a person has self-efficacy and perceives benefits in taking control of their actions (response effectiveness), they are likely to have the intention to modify their behaviour to reduce health risks (Ogden, 2007). Information or education that influences an individuals emotional response can be environmental (external influence, such as advice from a health professional), or interpersonal (relating directly to past experience). Information and education contribute to an individuals self-efficacy. This in turn helps develop a robust internal locus of control and will inform and/or contribute to the individuals coping response (Marks et al, 2005). The coping res ponse is considered to be adaptive (positive behavioural intention) or maladaptive (avoidance or denial). Assessment of the individuals capacity to understand and apply information and to have an adaptive response is a vital skill of the health professional. A maladaptive coping response, such as the denial of identified risk factors, has potentially serious consequences for the health of the individual (Marks et al, 2005). Successful implementation of the Protection Motivation Model can enable informed choice and empower the individual to take personal responsibility and control of behaviours influencing their health (Morrison and Bennett, 2009). Skilled questioning and the use of checking skills by the healthcare professional following information-giving are important to evaluate the benefit, if any, to the individual with diabetes (Ogden, 2007). Readiness to change is a concept derived from Prochaska and DiClementes (1983) transtheoretical model. It refers to how prepared or ready individuals are to make changes to their behaviour. Interventions guided by this theory focus on individuals motivation to change and the approach is adapted according to differences in participants motivation to change behaviour. Success is achieved only when the individual is ready to take on the actions needed to change behaviour. An individual may know that smoking and type 2 diabetes are not a good combination. However, unless the person is ready to quit smoking, no amount of discussion with a healthcare professional will change the persons decision to continue smoking. Establishing an internal motivator is a good first step to assessing an individuals readiness to change, however, an individual also needs to feel that the time is right and that they are prepared to change. Readiness to change can be assessed by asking individuals, as soon as the potential problem is identified, whether they have ever attempted to change the behaviour before. Six stages of change were identified in Prochaska and DiClementes (1983) Transtheoretical model of behaviour change: Pre-contemplation; Contemplation; Preparation; Action; Maintenance and Relapse. Most people (around 60%) will be at the pre-contemplation stage when they are identified by the healthcare practitioner and will generally react in a closed way to the idea of change (Prochaska and Goldstein, 1991). They may be rebellious to the idea, they may rationalise their current behaviour or be resigned to it, or they may be reluctant to consider the possibility of change (Prochaska and Goldstein, 1991). In this situation, it is tempting to push people into making an attempt at behaviour change using their health as a motivator or by making them feel guilty. However, this is likely to prompt the individual to either lie about their behaviour or avoid the nurse completely. During the contemplation phase, it is suggested that individuals who are starting to consider change look for information about their current and proposed behaviours, and analyse the risks involved in changing or maintaining their current behaviour. The most appropriate action is to ask the individual to form alise the analytical process by undertaking a decisional balance exercise (Health Education Authority (HEA), 1996). In this exercise the person is asked to consider the positive and negative implications of maintaining or changing their behaviour. The individual then decides whether maintaining or changing the behaviour will give them increased positive outcomes, and if they are willing to attempt the change. To be at the preparation stage, individuals need to believe that their behaviour is causing a problem, that their health or wellbeing will improve if they change the behaviour, and that they have a good chance of success (Prochaska and Goldstein, 1991). Once the healthcare practitioner establishes that the individual has an internal motivator and is ready to make an attempt at behaviour change, a supportive treatment plan is needed. Individuals who are in the process of behaviour change, or who have achieved and are maintaining the new behaviour, need help to avoid relapse (Pro chaska and Goldstein, 1991). The most effective way to do this is to ask the individual to reflect on their experiences so far. Apart from taking into account the management behavioural change for those with type 2 diabetes, it is also of vital importance that there is a consideration the emotional impact of a diabetes diagnosis and living with the condition. How patients feel when presented with the diagnosis of a chronic illness such as diabetes can have an enormous impact on their lives, and on their ability to make emotional adjustments to the disease itself (Marks et al, 2005). Research has found that that the diagnosis of a chronic illness can have a strong emotional impact on individuals, with reactions of grief, denial and depression. The emotional aspects of developing and coping with diabetes can affect overall control of the disease profoundly. Similarly, these feeling may form a barrier to effective listening and learning during the consultation process and any future self-management strategies. Therefore, it is proposed that this should be taken into consideration when developing educational prog rammes and protocols for people with diabetes (Thoolen et al, 2008). Coping and adapting to a long-term chronic illness is a major theme in health psychology (Ogden, 2007). Leventhal Nerenz (1985) propose that individuals have their own common sense beliefs about their illness. These include identity: diagnosis (diabetes) and symptoms (elevated blood sugar levels, excessive hunger and excessive thirst). Perceived cause of illness: stress, a virus, unhealthy lifestyle. Time line: acute or chronic. Consequences: physical (pain, mobility problems) and emotional (lack of social contact, anxiety). Cure and control: for example by taking medication or getting plenty of rest. With regard to adapting to an illness such as diabetes, the stress coping model of Lazarus and Folkman (1984) Transactional model of stress is the concept that is most widely utilised. The model suggests that there are key factors in adaptation to chronic illness, disease-specific coping efforts, changes in illness representation over time, interaction between psychological reality of disease and affective response, procedures for coping with the disease and interaction with context. The stress coping model (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) emphasises the value of coping strategies to deal with a particular condition. Self-management strategies based on this model attempt to improve the individuals coping strategies. In type 2 diabetes, people are faced with the prospect of long-term complications caused by the condition. If people are aware of these possibilities and also that successful treatment is, available it makes a diagnosis of such problems less daunting. However, there are limitations to this model. It is debated that it is a frame of reference, not a theory that ignores specific features of the illness. The situation dimension poorly represented and it is not specific. The model also neglects interactions with context (e.g. social support, other life events) and offers no account of life goals on illness representation and coping (Ogden, 2007). It is of vital importance that stress is controlled and managed in an individual with type 2 diabetes. Research has shown a link between stress as a causal factor and that stress has been found to be a factor in regulation of blood glucose regulation. Sepa et al (2005) found that family stress has a significant impact on the and development of diabetes among infants. With regard to stress and metabolic control, research has found that stressful life events predict poor glucose control. In a study by Surwit et al, (2002) the management of stress was found to improve glucose control. Therefore, it is posited that the impact of stress can affect diabetes adversely and any interventions to manage stress may be a worthwhile component of diabetes education programs. An additional influence on coping and adapting to living with diabetes and the development of self-management strategies has come from clinical psychology, particularly Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (CBT). Central to these therapies is the importance of attempting to change how people think about their illness and themselves, and how their thoughts affect their behaviour. Depression is one of the most common psychological problems among individuals with diabetes, and is associated with worse treatment adherence and clinical outcomes (Gonzalez et al, 2010). A randomised controlled trial (RCT) undertaken by Lustman et al, (2008) found that the percentage of patients achieving remission of depression was greater in the CBT group than in the control group. Although the research found that there was no difference in the mean glycosylated haemoglobin levels of the groups post-treatment, follow-up mean glycosylated haemoglobin levels were significantly better in the CBT group than in the control group. Therefore, it is debated that the combination of CBT and supportive diabetes education is an effective non-pharmacologic treatment for major depression in patients with type 2 diabetes. It may also be associated with improved glycaemic control. It is important to note however, that certain limitation apply to the above study that may have an effect on the findings. The generalizability of the findings is uncertain. The study was limited to a relatively small number of patients. Similarly, the follow-up interval was limited to the 6 months immediately after treatment. Likewise, the researcher cannot exclude the possibility that CBT and diabetes education interacted in a way that potentiated antidepressant effectiveness; analogous interactions may have occurred in many clinical trials. Further studies comparing CBT and diabetes education, individually and in combination, are needed to answer such questions and to see whether successful CBT alone is sufficient to produce glycaemic improvement. Correspondingly, it is worth noting that patients in the CBT group had education almost a full year longer than controls. The difference in education was not statistically significant, but the extra educational experience may have contributed to improved outcome in the CBT group. Finally, treatment was administered by a single psychologist experienced in the use of CBT. Whether treatment would be as effective when administered by other therapists is uncertain. For any person with type 2 diabetes to engage in any self-management strategy, good mental health is necessary. However, studies have shown reduced self-worth and/or anxiety in more than 40% of people with diabetes (Anderson et al,2001). There are several possible reasons for this. Being diagnosed with diabetes immediately poses major concerns for the individual, including what the future holds in terms of health, finance, and family relationships. Although everyone deals with diagnosis differently, for some it can cause immediate stress, including feelings of shock or guilt. Some individuals may also be ashamed and want to keep the diagnosis a secret. Others may be relieved to know what is causing the symptoms they have been experiencing. An Audit Commission (2000) report acknowledged that: people with diabetes are more likely to suffer from clinical depression than those in the general population. The report then went on to specify that therefore, diabetes services should make expl icit provision for psychological support and should monitor the psychological outcomes of care. In conclusion, to be successful in changing behaviour to negate the complications of type 2 diabetes, individuals need to decide for themselves which behaviours are undesirable, that is, which behaviours could have negative health, financial, social or psychological implications. People with diabetes also need to feel that the negative impact of risky health behaviours will be reduced or altered if they change their behaviour. It is important that individuals have confidence in their ability to make and maintain behavioural changes. It is not the health practitioners role to make this judgement or impose his or her beliefs. To support behavioural change, healthcare professionals need to feel comfortable in discussing lifestyle behaviours. They also need to assess an individuals preparedness to make a change and identify the factors that motivate them to change. The application of health psychology models, such as the Health Belief Model, the Protection Motivation Theory and the Trans theoretical model of behaviour change, to the management process can enable healthcare practitioners to assess contributory factors to health behaviours. Applying models can also help to identify motivators and barriers to health-improving and health-protecting behaviours, and identify strategies which assist the person in behavioural change. The role of the healthcare professional is to enable individuals to make an informed choice by working in partnership with them to decide when and if behaviour change is desirable. By understanding how an individual copes and adapts to living with a long-term condition such as diabetes can assist in empowering individuals to managed stress that appears to have a negative im

China and Japan research :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In China and Japan, there are numerous similarities and differences in their religions. People have their choices of following a certain religion. China is a country with great diversity as well as Japan. Religion is a big deal to many Asians. Chinas religions major religions and beliefs are Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Dongba and Protestant. China has about 5.5 million Protestants and 3.5 million Catholics. Confucianism is one of the major philosophies that concerns human society, social relations, and individual conduct. It is more of a social and ethical philosophy than a religion. Confucianism was adopted as a state religion which was to reorder society. The concept of family is central to Confucianism, generating a high standard for family interaction through mutual respect, love and consideration for the needs of others. Buddhism originated in India. This is another one of the major world religions. People sit and meditate for many hours then enlightenment comes to the man and becomes the Buddha. The main concept is liberation of the soul to achieve enlightenment. Life is made of suffering because people are tortured by desire. People overcome desire and enter nirvana, a state of complete freedom. Taoism is truly a Chinese religion which is more individual and mystic and greatly influenced by nature. This is the driving force and all order behind life. It is the power of nature and way of the universe. Taoism is the way to follow to organize life in harmony with nature and the universe. It inspired a love of nature and an intense affirmation for life- physical health, vitality, longevity, and even immorality. Taoism covers a wide variety of gods, magic ceremonies, powers and sorcery. All the religions are practiced today along with Chinas communist ideology. Confucius had government aspirations. He took to streets offering solicited advice about how to structure government and administration bodies. The religion became accepted as a state ideology and orthodoxy. The emperor considered the embodiment of Confucian wisdom and virtue. A strong hierarchy became the canon of political rule. Buddhism spilt into several major schools. Many of Japans religions are the same as Chinas such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Many of the beliefs are the same. Religions do not play a big role in the everyday lives of most Japanese people nowadays. The average Japanese just follows the religious rituals at a few ceremonies such as births. Japan's two most important religions are. The two religions co-existed for several centuries and even complemented each other to a certain degree. The feeling of duty to belong to just a single religion as it is widespread among followers of the three large occidental

Muslim and Non Muslim Laws :: essays research papers

Islamic law and non-Muslims Some pro-Israeli opinion cite traditional interpretations of sharia (Islamic law) which requires, among other things, that Muslim territory encompass all land that was ever under Muslim control, as a source for the Arab-Israeli conflict. Since the territory of Israel, prior to being the British Mandate of Palestine, was once part of the Ottoman caliphate, some Islamic clerics believe it is unlawful for any portion of it to remain 'usurped' by non-Muslims. By contrast, pro-Arab opinion points at the pronounced religious tolerance of the caliphates, where Christians and Jews coexisted "harmoniously" with Muslims and were granted limited self-autonomy. Resentment of Israeli Jews, this argument concludes, only emerged as a result from and after the rise of the Zionist enterprise in Palestine. Pro-Israeli views, however, often dismiss this explanation with the argument that Muslim Arab hostility towards Israel is largely derived from the sharia dictation that Jews or Christians are not to be considered equal to Muslims. Pro-Arab commentator view this as running counter to the tradition of tolerance towards "People of the Book" in Islam. They also point towards the long tradition of Palestinian Christians in their resistance to Israel and its policies, including such noted figures as Edward Said and George Habash, and the various Palestinian secular movements such as the PLO itself. In turn pro-Israeli proponents refer to a declining Christian Palestinian population (along with those of most Arab Christians) as, at least in part, a product of Muslim hostility towards non-Muslims, in general. According to a report published in December 2001 by the Foundation for the Defense of Democracies think tank.The Christian Exodus from the Middle East (http://www.defenddemocr acy.org/usr_doc/Christian_Exodus.pdf), in December 1997 The Times noted: "Life in (PA ruled) Bethlehem has become insufferable for many members of the dwindling Christian minorities." The report also states that "Christians in the Palestinian territories have dropped from 15% of the Arab population in 1950 to just 2% today." Some Palestinian Christian are of the opinion that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has led to the diminishment of their population[[8] (http://christianactionforisrael.org/antiholo/hate_jews.html)][[9] (http://www.amconmag.com/2004_05_24/article.html)]. Ohers, like Abe Ata, a Palestinian Christian, are of the opinion that American Christians have "turned their backs" on them by supporting Israel [[10] (http://www.natcath.com/NCR_Online/archives/112202/112202r.htm)]. The Anglican bishop of Jerusalem, Riah Abu El-Assal, is recorded as being "intemperate in his attacks on Israel"[[11] (http://christianactionforisrael.org/ant iholo/hate_jews.html)]. Many Palestinian Christians have complained about Israel's treatment of them. One such complaint is that Israel does not give Palestinian Christians permission to visit holy places [12] (http://www.

Wisdom of Parents in the Poem, Photograph of My Father In His Twenty-Second Year :: Photograph of My Father In His Twenty-Second Year

Wisdom of Parents in the Poem, Photograph of My Father In His Twenty-Second Year We have all grown up hearing our parent's advice "Do as I say, not as I do". When your parents give this advice you do not always listen at first, but later on in life you may catch yourself using it. I believe it is very important value, respect and listen to what your parent's say; their experience with life is their major tool in shaping their children into adults. Parents have lived life longer than their children that is a fact. And what they have gained is wisdom. Through out their lives they have learned from their personal experience and can use these experiences to try and guide their children in the right direction in a similar experience. In the poem "A Song In The Front Yard" (Gwendoly Brooks, Bridges 44) it gives us a picture of a child wanting to explore more of the world than her parents think she should. "I've stayed in the front yard all my life,"(Line 1) this line tells us that the child was a little sheltered. Not able to go out of the front yard the child was kept in away from the rest of the world. "I want a peek at the back" (Line 2) in this line the child wants to explore more than just the front yard, just to go into the back yard would be great. "To where the charity children play. I want a good time today. They do some wonderful things. They have some wonderful fun. (Lines 8-10) In these lines they show how the child sees the surroundings outside the fence. The child sees that the other children are doing fun things that the child wishes he or she could do. He or she sees the activities of the other children as wonderful. The other children are probably doing things that the child in the front yard doesn't get to do. "My mother sneers, but I say it's fine how they don't have to go in at quarter to nine. My mother, she tells me that Johnnie Ma will grow up to be a bad woman." (Lines 11-14) In these lines the poet depicts the mother's feelings of the other children. She doesn't think that they are the best crowd for her child to be influenced by or maybe the activities they are doing are quite appropriate.

Historical Institutionalism Essay

Question 3: How does historical institutionalism envision political change? How does it envision the impact of organizations? Thelen and Steinmo share the common view among institutionalist scholars that historical institutionalism (HI) remains â€Å"sticky† when envisioning political change, even when political or economic conditions have changed dramatically (1992:18). Political change, then, according to Thelen, is centered on the concept of path dependency, or a framework of slow change dependent on the legacy of rules formed and tested throughout history. In order to understand how particular kinds of external events and processes are likely to produce political openings that drive path-dependent institutional evolution and change, Thelen prioritizes an analysis of critical junctures and feedback effects as two key reproduction mechanisms that engender foundations of institutional arrangements and political stability (1999:388-396). Critical junctures demonstrate that â€Å"[c]ausal analysis is inherently sequence analysis† (Rueschemeyer et al 1992:4; Thelen 1999:390) in that sequencing and timing of political and economic development in historical context can influence institutional outcomes. Feedback effects are based on the idea that institutions are not neutral coordinating mechanisms but instead reflect, reproduce, and magnify particular patterns of power distribution in politics. Thus, political arrangements and policy feedbacks actively facilitate the organization and empowerment of certain groups while actively disarticulating and marginalizing others, creating distributional biases in particular institutions that â€Å"feed back† so that â€Å"over time, some avenues of policy become increasingly blocked, if not entirely cut off† as â€Å"decisions at one point in time can restrict future possibilities by sending policy off onto particular tracks† (Weir 1992:18-19; Thelen 1999:394). Thelen discusses four scenarios in which HI envisions political change, with the first three describing change as exogenous, characterized by Krasner’s framework of â€Å"punctuated equilibrium† in which institutions exhibit long periods of stability, periodically â€Å"punctuated† by crises that bring about abrupt institutional change, after which institutional stasis sets in (Thelen 1999:15). Broad socioeconomic changes causing previously latent nstitutions to become salient toward political outcomes, changes in the socioeconomic context or political balance of power producing a situation in which new actors pursue new goals within old institutions for different ends, and changes in outcomes as old actors adopt new goals within old institutions are the three exogenous scenarios of political change. The fourth scenario of political change is endogenous in that political actors adjust their strategies to accommodate changes within the institutions themselves (my emphasis Thelen 1999:17). In this scenario, Thelen advances the â€Å"dynamic constraints† framework for explaining change in that change can be a piecemeal process resulting from the long-term maneuvering of political actors within institutional constraints. HI envisions the impact of organizations by examining how an institution shapes individual preferences within the organization not only by shaping strategies but also the goals that the actors pursue. Because the individual is not completely de-linked from the institution, stasis and ultimately continuity is achieved. Question 8: How is the chapter by Ken Greene an example of historical institutionalism? What light does it shed on the process of democratization in Mexico? To what extent is his analysis specific to Mexico and to what extent (and how) can it travel to other cases? Ken Greene’s chapter is an example of historical institutionalism because it stresses the importance of legacy in political outcomes. One of the main tenets of his argument is that opposition parties were constrained by their own origins, thereby resulting in low appeal for voters to support them despite widespread dissatisfaction with the PRI (Greene 2007:175). As Greene explains (ibid: 175), the main yet subtle effect of single party dominance on partisan competition is the resulting rigidity in the challenger party organization that are slow to innovate in the face of new opportunities. The idea that challengers may fail due to the weight of the past rather than the more blatant aspects of dominant party power is one example of political stasis at work through the reproduction mechanism of institutional feedback. The political arrangements of institutional legacy promote and empower the dominant party while marginalizing opposition parties in a manner that, in this case, results in institutional stasis and continuing PRI dominance. The continuing dominance and institutional stasis of the PRI along with the political socialization of early elite political actors of opposition parties have both contributed to the slow process of democratization in Mexico. Extreme and differing preferences of early elite actors created an extreme foundation of opposition institutions, resulting in both the PAN and PRD’s emergence as niche parties and ultimately their failure to unify around the goal of defeating the PRI with centrist strategies. According to Greene, â€Å"the sequencing of party affiliation created a perverse outcome: early joining party elites created niche parties in their own image that were constrained to the core. (Ibid: 178) Thus, the status of democratization in Mexico at the time of this article’s publication suggests a disconnect between extreme elitist opposition party actors and a body of voters who are presumably unified through centrist preferences. Although Greene’s analysis is founded on country-specific evidence particular to this case, the lesson of PAN’s ability to move beyond its traditional core constituency and overcome its own intra-party rigidities and in some ways can be applied to t he Worker’s Party (PT) success in 2002. Like PAN, PT began as a highly ideological party and resisted the adoption of vote-maximizing measures for a significant amount of time. As Hunter explains (2007: 444), PT leaders were able to revise ideological rigidity â€Å"in light of major changes in the economic landscape and growing institutional strength of the state and party system. † The reassessing of their electoral standing, the PT became more electoral and behaved more like a catchall Brazilian party. The case of strategic adaptation and path dependence in Brazil was exemplified by Lula’s strategy of â€Å"layering,† gradually negotiating innovation â€Å"by placing new elements on top of established ones. Although this strategy bore little immediacy to the party’s electoral prospects, subsequent and focused efforts of engagement in public opinion and marketing Lula’s personal appeal constituted more concerted efforts toward electoral maximization. Question 9: What light does the piece by W. Hunter shed on the relative weight of rational choice vs. istorical institutionalism? Should we choose between them in analyzing a single phenomenon? Does it get too â€Å"wishy washy† to say that both rational choice and historical institutionalism are reflected in the evolution of the Workers’ Party? Both paradigms of rational choice institutionalism (RCI) and HI are important because of their ability to demonstrate a variety political outcomes and also because neither paradigm can individually provide comprehensive explanatory analysis for political change. With the example of the PT’s dynamic trajectory from 1989-2002, Hunter illuminates how political change happens on different layers. Hunter first presents the usefulness of the HI perspective in the nascent stage of the PT, noting the importance of the founding moment of an institution and further explaining founders’ proclivity to â€Å"long-term organization building rather than short-term vote maximization† (2007: 446). Weyland (2002:70) advocates HI framework in explaining institutional origin by critiquing RCI’s inability to explain institutional origin because â€Å"it conceptualizes institutions merely as rules of the game, not as actors in their own right. † Hunter also indicates HI’s overcompensation for continuity instead of change, thus revealing HI’s limitation of strategic flexibility in political parties like the PT during its first years of inception. Later, in explaining layers of political change still oriented within the framework of HI, Hunter traces the economic and political constraints imposed upon members of the PT, and ultimately explains within the framework of RCI ho change happened quickly in order for the PT to implement exogenous mobilization and electoral maximization strategies. Thus, the case study of the PT presents a substantive example of how RCI is useful at explaining quicker and short-term change whereas HI is better at explaining how change happens in slower and long-term layers. We should not necessarily choose between the two frameworks in analyzing a single phenomenon because there is an inherent value in diversity. As Weyland argues (2002:79), there is a need for â€Å"theoretical pluralism and ‘paradigmatic’ diversity† and â€Å"different frameworks make necessary and irreducible contributions to political analysis. † Political outcomes and political change across multitudinous contexts and applications could benefit from diverse approaches given the very complex reality of the behaviors of institutions. This complexity, as Weyland argues, â€Å"cannot be understood from one theoretical vantage point alone (Ibid: 79). †